Contract and Chicago Medical School Essay Example for Free

Contract and Chicago Medical School Essay Facts: In December 1973 Robert Steinberg, the plaintiff, applied for admissions to the Chicago Medical School. He paid an application fee of $15, but his application was rejected. After being rejected he filed against the school, claiming that they did not evaluate his application according to the academic entrance criteria printed in the school’s bulletin. Steinberg argues that the school based its decision primarily on nonacademic consideration such as family connections between the applicant and his family to donate large sums of money to the school. Steinberg assets that by evaluating his application to these unpublished criteria, the school breached the contract it had created when it accepted his application fee. The trail court granted the defendant’s motion to dismiss, and Steinberg appealed. Issue: What is a contract? Rules: Mutual Assent- the parties to a contract must by show of words or condut that they have agreed to enter a contract. The usual method of mutual assent is by offering and acceptance. Consideration- each party to a contract must intentionally exchange a legal benefit or incur a legal deteriment as an inducement to the other party to make a renturn change. THIS FOR THAT basically. Legality of subject matter- the purpose of a contract must be not criminal, tortuous, or otherwise against public policy Capacity- the parties to a contract must have mental understanding of what they are entering into. Application: The contract that Steinberg and Chicago Medical School entered into meets the four requirements for a contractual contract. Therefore it is binding and legally enforceable. Conclusion: The court agreed with Steinberg’s position and that both parties did indeed enter a enforceable contract and under this contract by accepting the application fee the school must evaluate give him valuable consideration and his application evaluation was to be based on the criteria stated in the school’s bulletin. Steinberg accepted the school’s promises in good faith and he was.

Social construction of environmental issues

Social construction of environmental issues Introduction The environment refers to the central part that links the ecological, political, social, economic and technological aspects. It is a component that integrates these spheres into a whole. This integration is necessary as none of these spheres can work without the others; they mutually depend on each other for the common good of the whole. Despite this, the environment is exposed to major destruction factors stemming from its utility and exploitation mostly by the same humans who depend on it (Reid and Paul 2005). Extensive and long-term destruction exposes the environment to continued degradation which then becomes irreversible at some point due to permanent destruction. Environmental issues refer to the consequences that arise as a result of reduced resilience to destruction by the environment (Reid and Paul 2005, pp.28-36). These issues are diverse and include factors such as, resource use conflicts, environmental degradation, global warming, pollution, species extinction among others. Our focus on environmental issues however targets the impacts of the social sphere on the environment. The social aspect considers the consequences arising from human to human interaction that indirectly impact on the environment as well as human nature interactions that contribute to a change in the functioning of the environment. As Bass (2000) asserts, humans obtain a good percentage of their livelihoods from the environment. These quantities are however variable. Poverty is a social condition that plays a vital role in molding the state of the environment. It has become an environmental issue due to the nature and impact of activities associated with it. It is expressed as a state where individuals who earn below a certain benchmark are said to be poverty stricken. This benchmark is what is known as the poverty line. Currently, the poverty line puts individuals who earn less than a dollar a day as poor. Poverty is driven by forces such as explosive population growth rates, corruption, high living standards and high inflation rates (Bass 2000). From an environmental perspective, poverty is both a cause and effect of environmental degradation. Poor people are mostly indigenous people, that is, they interact directly with the environment for their survival. They are therefore vulnerable in the sense that when they are deprived of a certain resource useful to them, their livelihoods are impacted on negatively to a large extent. Population explosions exist mostly in poverty stricken environments (Mink 1999). High birth rates are a common scenario in low income places. This is because health risks are high as people are unable to afford basic health requirements and maintain high levels of sanitation. Due to this, individuals opt to increase the population of their children whereby the death of one can be substituted by the survival of the others. High populations further result in environmental stress as the resources available in the environment are fixed while population levels continue to increase exponentially. From Erhlichs (2002) perspective environmental stress is felt where the carrying capacity is strained due to inadequate resources such as water that are available as demand for them grows at an alarming rate. This stress is also felt where increased numbers of people look for settlement areas and therefore encroach on pristine and fragile ecosystems like the forests and arid and semi arid lands. T his then tampers with ecological balance in these zones. Encroaching into arid and semi arid areas results in exposing these areas to desert like conditions due to land degradation. The degraded environment accelerates the process of impoverishment. Deforestation-Poverty And Environment Nexus Deforestation is one activity carried out to pave way for settlement of increasing populations. It is an activity where trees are cut down without being backed by afforestation. This leads to the extinction of valuable species of both fauna and flora. Deforestation causes environmental degradation where commercial logging is embedded in the policies of a nation for purposes of earning revenue to boost the Gross Domestic Product (Tomich 2001, p.18). Commercial timber benefits driven by government policies as incentives for deforestation in the Himalayas are one example that expounds on this issue. Countries attempting to improve the living standards of their citizens through this contribute to environmental deterioration of their local environments. In Africa especially Central and East Africa, deforestation is common and reduces the pristine tropical forests into shells as indigenous and endemic tree species are exploited for timber, fuel wood, herbal medicine and production of wooden artifacts (Grainger 2000). Deforestation also takes place for agricultural expansion. Shifting cultivation promotes the slash and burn approach where trees and shrubs are cut down to provide room for cultivation of crops with high market demands. Grainger (2000) observe that this technique results in excessive soil deterioration as it reduces land cover thus exposing the soil to high rates of soil erosion. The conversion of forests for cattle ranching and mechanized agriculture has also contributed to an environmental crisis. This is common in the Less Developed Countries where agriculture is the main foreign revenue earner as products are exported. In the attempt to meet the needs of its people, these countries practice the aforementioned activities. The production of agricultural commodities such as coffee, tea, among others is driven by market forces of demand and supply. The need to create grazing land for cattle ranching is also driven by the demand of dairy and meat products. These fields are overgrazed exposing fertile soils to soil erosion mechanisms (Balu 1996). Impact Of Education Education which is the acquisition of knowledge is important in the restoration, maintenance and conservation of the environment. This education may be acquired formally through modern acquisition methods such as being taught in class by trainers or informally through indigenous knowledge acquisition techniques. High poverty levels hinder the acquisition of this knowledge due to lack of resources such as reading materials and facilities like classrooms to spearhead the acquisition process. When this knowledge is not acquired, the environment is left at risk. It is exploited ignorantly and individuals usually end up with less environmental resources for use. Education is important to help communities reduce their overdependence on the immediate environment (Orr 2004). Deforestation is not entirely a cause of natural resource depletion. When carried out sustainably, deforestation can provide essential needs to people. However, knowledge of sustainable application is mostly obtained from education. Clean energy such as biogas can be adopted to provide substantial quantities of gas. The simple mechanism can be practically trained to community members. In order for relevant education to take place, resources such s human resources, delivery services, financial services and facilities have to be available for use. Human resources involve trainers who have the ability to create a learning environment for people so as to pass on information. Teachers or trainers are competent and understand the needs of local people hence train people on viable exploitation and conservation practices to prevent exploitation that leads to poverty (Wiseman 1999). On the other hand, financial resources are necessary for provision of education whereby funding for reading materials, tuition fees among others is essential. Lack of funds usually denies an individual the ability to acquire appropriate education hence poverty sets in. The facilitation of education is vital where delivery of services is provided (Orr 2004). In some Least Developed Countries, delivery of education services to remote areas is inevitable whereby people have to travel for long distances just to reach schools or in the case where the teacher has to a certain location and lacks transport. This therefore leads to denial of education. Another aspect hat promotes lack of acquisition of education is gender bias. Women are denied a chance to education. The boy child is seen as the epitome of the society hence given priority in accessing education {Wiseman 1999}. It has also become a cultural taboo to educate the girl child hence all these aspects contribute to increase in poverty levels. Lack of education increases poverty in such a way that one is denied access to jobs due to lack of basic skills and knowledge that enable one to gain access to jobs. This leads to crude methods that individuals will adopt to satisfy their livelihoods. Such crude methods include overexploitation of agricultural land, forests and other natural resources at large. Food Insecurity, Poverty And The Environment Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Food and Agriculture Organization). Food insecurity stages vary from food secure situations to total famine. Famine and hunger are deeply-rooted in food insecurity. This insecurity may be chronic whereby there is a high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger or transitional which may be short term in nature. Food security situations eliminate this kind of vulnerability. Chronic food insecurity is characterized by undernourishment and is known to exist mostly in poor countries (Clay 2004). Inadequate human resource development inhibits peoples capacity to grow and/ or purchase the needed food. Human resource development for agriculture is usually facilitated by agricultural extension agents who provide professional agricultural information that enables maximum agricultural produce. Lack of these agents brings about food insecurity in the sense that maximum benefits are not acquired by farmers. Balu (1996), details that farmers acquire sustainable and professional advice through technical transfer, advisory work, human resource development and empowerment. Technical transfer involves a process whereby technical assistance is provided by governments towards technical issues that affect farmers such as funding, of equipment; advisory work is usually provided by private organizations and governments to give advice on issues pertaining to what crop to plant on what type of soil, methods of harvesting, planting and how to use certain equipment. Human resource development is mostly necessitated by university students and trainers who are competent in the agricultural field to farmers who cannot afford access to extension services. The empowerment of farmers integrates the participatory approach which ensures that farmers acquire practical skills relevant to increase their production capacities. With presence of extension services, food insecurity problems can be effectively minimized. The extension services are affected by poverty in the sense that; there are few extension agents. The ratio of extension agents to farmers is 1:1000; lack of adequate delivery services to deliver extension services to farmers. These are evidences of poverty in that lack of funding to support the provision of adequate extension agents and lack of funds to cater for transportation services. Poverty also causes lack of funds for training and extension materials and tools. This leads to food insecurity since maximum agricultural produces are not at tained (Clay 2004). Due to poor exploitation mechanisms, environmental degradation has been characterized by degraded natural resources. Soils for example have been degraded as a result of poor agricultural practices such as cultivating on hill slopes ad close to river banks; forests have been deforested to meet the daily needs of the people; fisheries have been exposed to siltation situations due to soil erosion, this has reduced immensely the survival of fishes. All these have been capitalized by poverty as individuals aim at satisfying heir immediate needs without caring about the impact of their activities on the overall state of the environment. As envisioned by Balu (1996), the food insecurity scenario has been compounded by population growth. Land fragmentation is evident in areas where inheritance is widely practiced. The male siblings of households are entitled to a portion of the family land. With the current populations approximating 3billion people, the agricultural land faces fragmentation problems which contribute to the reduction of available food resources as agricultural land is subdivided into small portions thus only small scale farming is practiced. There is also a general increase in consumer demand for food products. India and China are the leading countries of this demand (Mink 1999). The United States of America has only 1million farmers who are less than 1% of the countrys population. This increased demand outshines the supply curve resulting in less available food resources to cater for the general population. Furthermore, there is a high demand for non food products such as cotton for the production of clothes for people in the world over. This high demand for such resources has resulted in farmers opting to produce them as they boost there levels of income (Kenneth and Piet 2007). They convert their field to produce these instead of food products as food crops do not garner up as much profits as non food crops like cotton which are influenced by fashion and preferences. In addition, the world oil price has shot up to over one hundred dollars a barrel (Duchin 1998). With the inception of biofuels to counter oil scarcity, most countries have introduced the growth of jutropha, a famous crop known to produce substantial amounts of ‘green fuel. Countries such as Tanzania have therefore introduced this crop which has substituted the cultivation of food crops making them vulnerable to food insecurity as there is not enough food to feed its citizens. Industrialization is one invention introduced to provide resources to the ever increasing populations. As an incentive by governments to industry owners, the decentralization of industries is encouraged to reverse rural urban migration patterns. These industries are meant to provide jobs for the rural folks thus reducing their migration to urban areas in search for jobs. This is however at the expense of rural farmers who have to sacrifice sections of their lands to secure space for the development of these industries (Duchin 1998). The sizes of these agricultural lands shrink and the remaining fields are exposed to adverse effects such as those related to affluence from the industries further affecting the quality and quantity of the products. Residential areas are also developed to provide residence to the settlers. With high populations, the agricultural lands cannot escape the encroachment of people to these lands. People have to set aside portions of their lands for the establishment of housing units. Wood products that is, timber is required in the building of the residential units. This timber is majorly obtained from forests hence increasing the rate of deforestation that further heightens the degradation of the environment (Duchin 1998). During seasons of food shortage, poor households often embark on extreme measures in the present, including depriving the family of needed calories, in order to maintain productive resources for the future, such as a plough, oxen or seed stock. This proof suggests that poor African households may, in fact, have very low rates of time preference (Clay 2004). Urbanization Bass (2000) describes urbanization as the process by which villages grow into towns and urban centers and towns grow into cities and mega cities. An urban area is a settlement in which most of the inhabitants i.e. over 65% are engaged in non agricultural occupations. For example, commerce, manufacturing, administration, trading amongst others Urban areas are defined by population size, population function, population density which is the number of people per square kilometer, and legal administration. The United Nations recommended population size to declare a location as an urban area is twenty thousand people. The reasons for rural urban migration which contributes to urban growth are diverse and include; seeking employment due to high underemployment levels in rural areas; searching for settlement as rural areas are widely affected by land fragmentation; searching for recreational and social services (Reid and Paul 2005). Despite the movement of people from rural areas in search of employment opening, they are not assured of being employed in the end. High and rising unemployment rates contribute to poverty as people are unable to obtain financial resources important for the provision of basic needs. Individuals are forced to relocate to slum dwellings which are uninhabitable. Basic sanitation lacks in such locations with poor disposal of waste taking a centre stage. Common in the slum areas, are ‘flying toilets which are used due to lack of clean toilets (Elliot 1997). Satellite garbage sites are a common scenario in the urban areas where proper disposal mechanisms are not a prime consideration. Poor urban dwellers are unable to pay up for garbage collection in cases where this activity is privatized. The amount paid to such institutions is unaffordable for the poor hence satellite garbage sites are their only option. Mushrooming satellite garbage sites compromise the aesthetic value of the urb an environment (Mink 1999). Available amenities are overstrained due to large numbers of people living towns, cities and urban areas. Water resources for example are on high demand while their supply is largely influenced by watershed management and climatic conditions. The quality and quantity of water available in urban areas is compromised by industrial establishment, residential use and commercial utility. Water is mostly polluted when these establishments do not meet environmental standards as far piping and sewerage system is concerned. Clean water may mix up with sewage where the system is poorly done further resulting in water borne diseases. Towns located close to large water bodies contribute to water pollution due to the formation of algae blooms. Congestion of humans and traffic is another cause of environmental deterioration. This is common in busy urban areas. Unworthy road vehicles pollute the environment with lead and smoke. The congestion of people also increases their vulnerability to air related diseases like tuberculosis (Mink 1999). Embezzlement of resources accruing from corruption is another cause of poverty. Lack of transparency in government and private sector institutions located in urban areas promotes poor maintenance of services. The fire brigade is an important department especially in cities. Sources of livelihoods like businesses go up in smoke accidentally for example through electrical mishaps and cannot be salvaged due to poor service delivery from the necessary department. People are reduced to poverty which indirectly affects the natural environment. The smoke from the burning buildings also causes air pollution. Impact Of Rich Nations On The Environment Extreme inequalities exist in human societies. According to the United Nations Human Development Report 2009, 20% of people in industrialized countries account for 80% of total private consumption expenditures. The poor on the other hand account for a miserable 1.3%. In addition, 1 billion people suffer from hunger and approximately 2-3 billion experience deficiencies in vitamins and minerals. 1 Billion Survive on less than a dollar a day and 2 billion on less than 2 dollars a day. On the contrary, a few hundred millionaires own as much wealth as the worlds 2 billion people. Decision making on world related issues is usually skewed to favor few narrow interests of richer nations (Duchin 1998). This can be evidenced from the just ended Copenhagen Summit in Denmark. Richer nations who have contributed largely to global climatic changes are unable to commit themselves on a timescale to address the climate change issue. Poor nations are left with no options but to agree with the recommended solutions despite contributing minimally to these changes and yet experiencing immensely to the adverse impacts of climate change (Ehrlich 2002). Clay 2004 observes that Third world debt ahs made it difficult to prioritize on sustainable development. The Breton Woods institutions that is, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund through the introduction and adoption of Structural Adjustment Programs have destructed immensely environments of countries that have adopted such strategies and streamlined them in policies, rules and regulations. This has set drawbacks on health, education and provision of other necessary services due to a requirement to prioritize on debt repayment. Loans are lent to third world nations at high interest rates and are to be settled at specific timescales. Structural Adjustment Programs encourage deforestation of indigenous forests and encourage plantation forests (Tomich 2001). Free market economies are introduced by Structural Adjustment Programs where forces of demand and supply determine the selling price of commodities. This is dangerous in economies with high demands and low supply levels of goods and services as more and more people are driven into poverty due to high and fast rising living standards. Basic commodities are difficult to acquire as they are expensive. Food and farm products flow from areas of hunger and need to areas of with monetary stabilities and high demand, from rural areas to urban zones and from third world countries to first world countries. Third world countries that export unprocessed food products such as coffee beans export them at low prices to richer nations. These products are processed and imported at high prices to third world nations. This creates a vicious poverty cycles. In West Africa, cocoa is harvested and exported to the western world for the production of cocoa. The harvesters are paid meager wages and spend most of their valuable time in the fields. When coca is imported back, it is sold at very high prices resulting in strikes and riots (Clay 2004). Less Developed countries are used as dumping grounds for goods, industries and toxic wastes. Second hand goods such as clothes are imported at cheaper prices to these nations. Infant industries that produce new clothes shut down as they face the challenge of accessing local markets which are already invaded by foreign commodities whose prices are cheaper (Bass 2000). Industries that pollute the environment and do not meet environmental standards are relocated in third world countries whose measures are not stringent. They are also able to survive due to poor governance. Mining industries such as those located in South Africa result in worsening the aesthetic value of the environment as derelict holes are left open and become breeding grounds for mosquitoes when rain water accumulates (Elliot 1997). Toxic wastes from the west find their way into environments of poor nations. The waste impacts negatively on the environment of the recipient nation. Nuclear energy results in the production of toxic radioactive waste which destroys the life forms located close to where it is dumped. The destination for such wastes is large water bodies. Since water in these bodies is mobile the waste finds its way to shores mostly of developing countries due to the proximity of the dumping grounds to the country geographical boundaries. Corn is a major animal food grown in the United States. The amount of corn produced can feed humans in poverty stricken countries for close to 90 days. This shows that the amount produced is a lot. However, instead of it being supplied to humans it is fed to animals. Rich nations have contributed to the continuity of poverty in developing countries. This is by instituting and entertaining the dependency syndrome (Duchin 1998). Recipients of foreign aid and donor funding have created a perception that it is their right to receive this aid. They are therefore reluctant to adopt self independence practices as they believe that their lives can only be sustained through foreign aid. Poverty then becomes chronic as people are more vulnerable. Infrastructure And Technology Infrastructure entails promoting information and communication in vast areas of the country. This communication is better built by increasing access to various parts that are hot spots for the provision of certain goods and services. Infrastructure plays a fundamental role in minimizing poverty. Lack of it on the other hand accelerates poverty conditions (Botros 1997). Agriculture is one aspect that incorporates infrastructure and technology. Since agricultural products are naturally susceptible to perishing, it is essential that they get to markets early enough before they are stale. For this to be achieved, access roads to agricultural zones should be of good quality. This is not the case however in regions affected by poverty. The poor state of access roads results in losses incurred by farmers as the roads do not favor quick transfer of commodities to markets. Technology is vital for example in finding the most suitable means of transport for agricultural commodities to markets. Using vehicles are all weather road resistant ensures that commodities reach the market without vehicles getting suck on the way. Fish products require freezing equipment attached to automobiles so as to get to market locations when fresh. If these are not incorporated in the initial stages irreversible losses will be incurred. For this to be effectively adopted, financial resources are required to purchase the necessary equipment and machinery. Poverty cripples this as it is mainly characterized by lack of resources. When this happens resources are underexploited and sometimes poorly exploited resulting in environmental compromises (Kenneth and Piet 2007, p. 48-53). Appropriate technology involves the adoption of technology efficient for the exploitation of the natural resources. Technology is important but not all technology is applicable (Botros 1997, p.78). The use of organic fertilisers is for example necessary for the sake of the environment. The use of different sizes of fishing nets could also necessitate the discriminative fishing which ensures that young fishes are not fished out. Biogas production and the use of solar energy protect both the environment and individuals from adverse effects as a result of utilizing poor energy resources. This is propagated by knowledge of the appropriate technology and basic application skills. Industries require the utilization of sufficient electricity for the production and processing. In order for the industry to be sustainable, the production of electricity can include recycling hot water for driving electric turbines. Industrial symbiosis is necessary to ensure maximum production at lower costs (Elliot 1997). This is where by-products of one industry are used as raw materials for another. This ensures that resources are well maintained and used sparingly to avoid overexploitation. The development of relevant infrastructure and technology comes at an extra expense. Poor countries are left out as they are unable to raise the funds needed propelled by their state of Gross Domestic Products whose percentage is diverted to this goal. Health And Environment Health diseases can be attributed to poverty related activities. In door and outdoor pollution occurs when firewood and biomass energy such as cow dung is used as fuel. This is because carbon dioxide and monoxide gases that affect the respiratory organs of human beings. These gases are also of suffocating nature and cause deaths of close to 1% of its users (Reid and Paul 2005). Poor people are at high risks of death as they are unable to access basic health care needs. Preventable and immunisable diseases are a major cause of death among poverty stricken people. Burial sites are a common sight in poverty locations and to the pollution of underground water due to sipping of human burial waste in to underground aquifers. Cemeteries also impact on the aesthetic value of the environment. Conclusion Environmental issues are complex and require appropriate and applicable solutions. Poverty is a major environmental issue which despite being socially constructed affects the rest of the environmental spheres. Poor populations are widely found in Developing and Less Developing countries. Women are a component of the poverty development nexus and should be actively involved in the decision making process to help reverse the state of poverty in their designated locations. Capacity development and empowerment are powerful tools that can be employed to contribute to community development and sustenance. This should therefore be promoted in all aspects of development. References Balu, B and Carlos, B, 1996, The Position of Fertilizer in Supporting Food Security and Caring for the Environment, Washington DC, International Food Policy Research Institute Bass, S 2000, City Poverty and the Environment, Fiji, University of New England, Botros, S, 1997, Green Technology and Blueprint for the Environment, Washington DC, Taylor and Francis Clay, J, 2004, Global Agriculture and Environment, USA, Sage Publications Duchin, F, 1998, Measuring Variations in Technology, Living Conditions and the Environment, USA, Island Press. Ehrlich, P, 2002, Food Security, Population and Environment, London, Darton Elliot, D, 1997, Energy, Humanity and Environment: a sustainable future, New York, Routledge Grainger, A, 2000, Assessing Tropical Deforestation, United Kingdom, Earth scan Publications Kenneth, M and Piet, B 2007, Poverty Decline and Environment, Washington DC, World Bank Mink, S, 1999, Scarcity, Population and the Environment, New York, World Bank Orr, D, 2004, Earth in Mind: culture, environment and human view, USA, Island Press Reid, H and Paul, S, 2005, Reducing Poverty and Sustaining the Environment, London, Earth scan Publications Tomich, TP, 2001, Increase in Deforestation and the Environment: assessing trade offs, Nairobi, World Agro forestry Centre Wiseman, S, 1999, Education and Environment, Oxford, Manchester University Press

The Temporary Guide Base Engineering Essay

The Temporary Guide Base Engineering Essay After the drilling units anchors have been deployed on the new location the first item lowered is the temporary guide base (the TGB). This serves as a foundation for all the other subsea equipment that will follow, and as an anchorage for the guideline cables on which that equipment will be run down to the sea-bed. The TGB is a circular, octagonal or square, flat, steel frame of about 100 square feet in area which has compartments in which ballast materials can be placed. The unit alone usually weighs about four tons, but it is heavily weighted with bags of cement, barite or other heavy materials before being lowered to the sea bed on the end of a string of drill pipe. A special tool for releasing the TGB when it is in position is fitted to the drill pipe string, and this connects with a slot in the steel guidebase frame. On the underside of the frame four spikes project to dig into the sea bed and firmly anchor the unit. Four wires are attached to the edges of the TGB, and when it has been landed these are tensioned up and used for guiding other items of equipment down to their locations above the TGB. There are also two smaller lines for running TV cameras down for monitoring operations from the doghouse on the drill floor. The guide line tensioners are large cylinders, installed in the cellar deck on the rig, that contain pistons which are positioned by air pressure. The amount of tension required on the guide lines is simply set by adjusting the air pressure. In the centre of the TGB frame is a wide circular aperture with a funnel shape projecting above it into which the bottom of another frame the permanent guide base will fit. The drill bit will commence drilling and all subsequent downhole operations will be conducted through this aperture. 3.0 THE PERMANENT GUIDE BASE The permanent guide base (PGB) is another heavy steel frame, about 3 tons in weight and square in shape, that has a wide central aperture and a tall post on each corner through which the four guidelines run. The PGB serves as a landing seat for the wellhead and as a guide for drilling tools and the blow-out preventer stack which is eventually located above the wellhead. The posts are used to locate the stack, which has arrangements to accept them within its own frame. The PGB is run down the guide lines to connect with the TGB, and there is a funnel-shaped projection around the aperture on its underside that inserts into the TGBs funnel-shaped top aperture and ensures an accurate fit. Beyond about 400 m water depth the guidewire system does not work too well so for deepwater a guideline less system using a capture funnel system is utilised. 4.0 THE WELLHEAD/CASING HANGAR SYSTEM The wellhead is a large, cylindrical device housing several internal fittings called casing hangars that are designed to suspend the required number and sizes of casing and tubing strings that will be used in the well. The wellhead/casing hangar locates through the holes in the two guide bases and fits into the top of the conductor casing after this has been run. It projects above the PGB, and is designed to connect with the BOP stack which is later run above it. The Subsea Wellhead is the main structural component which supports the loads generated during drilling operations and during production Operations. It is connected (welded) to the inner conductor (18  ¾) and is locked into the outer conductor, which itself is attached to the guide base. Over recent years two connection profiles have become the most frequently used. These are proprietary designs known as Vetco H-4 and the Cameron Clamp Hub profiles. Most UK drilling rigs are equipped with a single high pressure stack, though two stack systems were previously in use, to provide a low pressure connection at the 20 and high pressure for the 13 5/8 inch casing. The three main functions of a wellhead can be considered as :- To provide a location for suspension of casing strings. Each of the casing strings which run up through the well are physically suspended within the wellhead housing. Should the well be used for production, the production tubing is additionally supported and locked in position in the wellhead via the tubing hanger. To provide Sealing and Pressure Containment This sealing and containment takes place on two distinct areas, between the well and the environment and to provide isolation from between the casing and downhole structures. During drilling operations a Blow Out Preventer (BOP) is installed on the wellhead at the base of the Marine Drilling Riser. The BOP is mandatory and used to protect the rig and the environment at the seabed level in case of gas kick from the well, to avoid a Blow Out. Allows the installation of Flow Control Equipment Should the well be converted from an appraisal well into a future production (NORMAL CASE) or water injection well, the subsea Xmas Tree can be installed to provide flow control from the well or from the injection line or manifold. . For subsea wells, the wellhead is supported through the 30 inch housing/conductor which is cemented into the first/primary soil formation. The 30 inch housing then supports the internal wellhead housing with the subsequent internal casing strings, each one supported via a casing hanger at the wellhead with a seal mechanism. The 30 inch housing supports the permanent guidebase which forms the main guidance mechanism for equipment being deployed subsea to the wellhead, during drilling and completion operations. Four Guide Posts and guide lines are used down to 400m. For deeper waters guide lines are not practical and funnel down or up systems are deployed. The BOP stack and subsequently the Xmas Tree are connected to the wellhead by a hydraulically operated connector. The primary environmental loading on the wellhead occurs during the drilling phase, when a high varying bending moment is transmitted through the riser onto wellhead housing and then to the 30 inch housing/casing/formation through current, wave loads and drilling vessel movement. The wellhead housing is locked into the 30 inch wellhead and loads on the wellhead are transmitted into the 30 inch conductor. 6.0 OVERVIEW OF SUBSEA OPTIONS; SHALLOW AND DEEP WATERS The challenges to subsea production in the future are considerable, with solutions required to the economical extraction of oil and gas from ever deeper waters in remote locations. Deep water options are illustrated in Figures 19 A 19 B. There are a number of options currently open in the movement of oil and gas from well to shore, and there are some limitations. Availability of investment capital to achieve a profit from the expectation of sales of gas or oil in a depressed and volatile market. The adverse effects of hydrostatic pressure on sensitive subsea equipment. The limiting effects of hydrostatic pressure on the means of maintenance and intervention with subsea equipment. Mechanical limitations on the type of host. The limiting factors of distance between well and host. Surface climatic conditions affecting the host annual storm patterns, ice, etc. Subsea production equipment used to be much more expensive than land-based equipment, adapted for use on offshore platforms. This was by way of specification, manufacturing quality, complexity etc., as well as the requirements for specialist tools with which to run the equipment. Nowadays costs of subsea developments are very competitive to platform based systems. This is due to more than 15 years of operational experience, fabrication simplification, and competition coupled with the use of more simple functional specifications. An additional feature of subsea production systems is their designed ability to operate in deepwater (diver less) areas. The development of deepwater systems, the installation and operational support systems using ROVs has been a major set in recent years. In earlier years such diver less systems were more expensive that diver assisted systems, but the advances now make then very similar in cost. In fact diver less operations using ROVs can be more cost effective than the use of very costly divers (requiring all the life support systems and complex DSV). The purpose of subsea wellhead is To support BOP and seal with well casing during drilling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To support and seal the subsea production tree à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To support and seal the well casing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To support and seal the production tubing hanger The three main functions of a wellhead can be considered as; i)To provide a location for suspension of casing strings; Each of the casing strings which run up through the well are physically suspended within the wellhead housing. Should the well be used for production or injection, the tubing is additionally supported and locked in position in the wellhead via the tubing hanger (T.H.) when conventional dual bore trees are used. (ii)To provide Sealing and Pressure Containment; This sealing and containment takes place on two distinct areas, between the well and the environment and to provide isolation from between the casing and the down hole completion structures. During drilling operations a Blow Out Preventor (BOP) is installed on the wellhead at the base of the Marine Drilling Riser. The BOP is mandatory and used to protect the rig and the environment at the seabed level in case of gas kick from the well, to avoid a Blow Out and the riser is mandatory to return the drilling fluids, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to the rig. Refer to additional figures in Lecture L 5 B. (iii)Allows the installation of Flow Control Equipment; Should the well be converted from an appraisal well into a future production (NORMAL CASE) or water injection well (or gas injection well), the subsea Xmas Tree can be installed to provide production flow control from the well or into the well from the injection line or manifold. In these notes, the emphasis is on the subsea wells drilled from a semi submersible or a drill ship. In the southern North Sea and in water depths generally up to 100 m, jack-up rigs are also used. These provide a fixed platform from which to drill the wells and the well can be directly tied back into the rig. During drilling operations, a high pressure riser system connects the well with the jack-up and no subsea B O P system is necessary. For subsea wells, the wellhead is supported through the 30 housing / conductor which is cemented into the first / primary soil formation. The 30 housing then supports the internal wellhead housing with the subsequent internal casing strings. Each one is supported via a casing hanger at the wellhead and with a seal mechanism. The 30 housing supports the Permanent Guide Base which forms the main guidance mechanism for equipment being deployed subsea to the wellhead, during drilling, completion operations and work over operations. Four Guide Posts and guide lines are used down to 500m .For deeper waters, guide lines are not practical and other guidance systems are in use with exploration drilling now reaching -2800m. Refer to section 6. The BOP stack and subsequently the Xmas Tree are connected to the wellhead by an hydraulic operated collet connector. Over recent years two connection profiles have become the most frequently used. These are proprietary designs known as Vetco H-4 and the Cameron Clamp Hub profiles. Most UK drilling rigs are equipped with a single high pressure stack, though two stack systems were previously in use, to provide a low pressure connection at the 20 and high pressure for the 13 5/8 casings. A single connection of the BOP stack to the wellhead is the generally accepted method. The primary environmental loading on the wellhead occurs during the drilling phase, when a high varying bending moment is transmitted through the riser onto wellhead housing and then to the 30 housing/casing/formation through current, wave loads and drilling vessel movements. It is now common policy to run the two top joints of 1  ½ wall thickness joints of 30 to provide the resistance to the anticipated loads, when previously, only 1 casing was considered. The wellhead housing is locked into the 30 conductor and loads on the wellhead are transmitted into it. In addition to the drilling loads the wellhead may be subjected to impact and snagging loads associated with construction activities and accidental incidents such as fishing trawl board impacts and pull over forces. These loads are transmitted through the production tree into the wellhead connector and through into the 30 conductor. SUBSEA XMAS TREES FUNCTIONS; 7.1 General; The Xmas Tree is the primary flow control system for fluid flow from or into the well. The flows which can be considered include the following :- (a) Production, produced fluids from the oil/gas/condensate bearing formation pass-up through the well tubing and the Xmas Tree. (b) Injection, treated, inhibited seawater is pumped from the host facility into the well to provide pressure support for the reservoir. Gas injection/disposal excess gas is pumped into an adjacent reservoir for temporary storage or in limited cases, pressure maintenance. Oil production with Gas lift, gas is pumped from the host facility, through the annulus to subsurface injection points in the tubing. The inclusion of gas into the produced fluid reduces the column density to allow the reservoir pressure to flow the well. It is a flow boosting technique but with a low efficiency.

Pragmatic Literary Criticism :: Literature Essays Literary Criticism

Pragmatic Literary Criticism      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pragmatic criticism is concerned, first and foremost, with the ethical impact any literary text has upon an audience. Regardless of art's other merits or failings, the primary responsibility or function of art is social in nature. Assessing, fulfilling, and shaping the needs, wants, and desires of an audience should be the first task of an artist. Art does not exist in isolation; it is a potent tool for individual as well as communal change. Though pragmatic critics believe that art houses the potential for massive societal transformation, art is conspicuously ambivalent in its ability to promote good or evil. The critical project of pragmatic criticism is to establish a moral standard of quality for art. By establishing artistic boundaries based upon moral/ethical guidelines, art which enriches and entertains, inspires and instructs a reader with knowledge of truth and goodness will be preserved and celebrated, and art which does not will be judged inferior, caution ed against, and (if necessary) destroyed. Moral outrage as well as logical argument have been the motivating forces behind pragmatic criticism throughout history. The tension created between this emotional and intellectual reaction to literature has created a wealth of criticism with varying degrees of success. Ironically, much like art's capacity to inspire diligence or decadence in a reader, pragmatic criticism encompasses both redemptive and destructive qualities.  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plato provides a foundational and absolute argument for pragmatic criticism. Excluding poetry from his ideal Republic, Plato attempts to completely undermine the power and authority of art. He justifies his position by claiming that "the power which poetry has of harming even the good (and there are very few who are not harmed) is surely an awful thing" (28). Because artists claim their imitations can speak to the true nature of things, circumventing the need for serious, calmly considered intellectual inquiry, art should not be pursued as a valuable endeavor. Art widens the gap between truth and the world of appearances, ironically by claiming to breach it. The artist promotes false images of truth and goodness by appealing to basic human passions, indulging "the irrational nature which has no discernment of greater and less, but thinks the same thing at one time great and at another small" (27). Art manufactures moral ambiguity, and to P lato this is unacceptable. Because it is deceptive and essentially superficial, all art must be controlled and delegitmized for all time.

An Analysis of Wright’s Poem Saint Judas Essay -- Saint Judas

An Analysis of Wright’s Poem Saint Judas      Ã‚  Ã‚   Upon reading the poem "Saint Judas" by James Wright, the reader quickly realizes that the poem deals with Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus' twelve apostles.   The author describes Judas as "going out to kill himself,"(line 1) when he sees a man being beaten by "a pack of hoodlums"(2).   Judas quickly runs to help the man, forgetting "how [his] day began"(4).   He leaves his rope behind and, ignoring the soldiers around him, runs to help.   Finally, he remembers the circumstances that surround his suicidal intentions and realizes that he is "banished from heaven"(9) and "without hope"(13)   He runs to the man anyway and holds him "for nothing in [his] arms"(14)      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to understand James Wright's intentions in writing this poem, one must first have an understanding of the biblical story that it deals with.   According to the Bible, "Satan entered Judas, who was numbered among the twelve [apostles].   So he went his way and conferred with the chief priests and captains, how he might betray [Jesus] to them.   And they were glad, and agreed to give him money.   Then he promised and sought opportunity to betray Him to them"(Luke 22. 3-6).   The Bible goes on to document Jesus and the apostles during the Last Supper, and Jesus revealing his knowledge of Judas' plan to betray him.   He tells his apostles:   "But behold, the hand of my betrayer is with me on the table"(Luke 22. 21).   Judas later leads the officials to Jesus and identifies him to them by kissing Jesus.   "Now His betrayer had given them a sign, saying, 'Whomever I kiss, He is the One, seize Him...Then immediately he went up to Jesus and said, 'Greetings, Rabbi! and kissed Him"(Matt. 26. 48-49).   After Jesus is ta... ...ough Wright does not say it directly, this may even suggest that the victim Judas encounters could be Jesus on his way to be crucified.   Judas temporarily forgets his intent to kill himself and runs to the victim, ignoring the soldiers.   Then he remembers the Last Supper and the meal he ate with Jesus and the other apostles ("Bread my flesh had eaten"(12)), and his betrayal of Jesus with a kiss ("the kiss that ate my flesh"(13)).   He goes to the man and "[holds him] for nothing is his arms"(14).   In this line Wright compares Judas' payment for betraying Jesus to the fact that he now offers comfort for nothing.    Works Cited 1. The Holy Bible, New King James Version. Reference edition. Thomas Nelson, Inc. 1983. 2. Wright, James. "Saint Judas." Approaching Poetry, Perspectives and Responses. Ed. Meg Spilleth. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1997. 70.   

Marketing aspect Essay

The management of Head’s Up is moderately efficient. They have accommodating and friendly personnel who provides the needs of their customers wherein they will ask what services they want to avail and instantly accommodate them. They have well equipped facilities and modern equipment that pave the way for more efficient ways of providing services for the customer’s convenience. E. SUPPLIERS The business supplier is from Luzon specifically Manila where they are exclusively supplying the treatments and medicines as well as other needs that they have to Head’s Up. Atty. Raymond said that they paid high to their supplier for exclusively purposes wherein they have a stall for the products that the supplier has at Ever Mall building 2nd floor. F. MARKETING MIX Place One of the most important aspects to consider for a business is its location. Wherein there are number of factors that need to be considered these are the customer needs and the employee needs such as customer convenience, parking, and accessibility. Head’s Up is located at 21 Silliman Avenue, Dumaguete City. Head’s Up location is considered as a strategic location knowing the fact that it is near to its target market which are the young professional, students, the foreigners and the walk-ins. Service Head’s Up being in a beauty industry offer the utmost service to the customers for it is the reason for its existence to give customer a great service and convenience that would give its customers a reason to come back. Promotion Promotion of a business establishment is important for it helps in positioning its image to its target market. Advertisement of an establishment is one way to garner publicity; Heads Up was launch in Metro Post newspaper and was later introduced in Negros Chronicles News and tied-up Radio station here in the City. Other than that Atty. Raymond told us that nothing more is effective to the word of mouth to its customers. Price The rates of their services are based on the price of the treatments and other medicines they use and also the services are priced in such a way that they compare themselves to the rates of their competitors. Head’s Up also offer 10% off to all services to its VIP cardholders and they also have happy hours to their SPA services specifically the Full Body Massage from 2pm-6pm wherein the price differ from its regular rate. Since one of their target markets are the students they also offer a student price range which is cheaper than the regular price. While in barbershop services they have this â€Å"Blowout† day every Tuesday wherein they price their haircut service half to its existing price. The following are the services and their corresponding rates of Head’s Up Barbershop, Salon and Spa. G. COMPETITOR’S ANALYSIS Competitive analysis plays a vital component in every business which made the owner aware the competition happening between its competitors. The following are one of the competitors of Heads Up Barbershop, Salon and Spa: Carlo Reyes Beauty Salon located at Perdices Street, Dumaguete City Cuttin’ Loose Hair & Nail Studio located at Portal West Bldg. Silliman Avenue, Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. Art Box located at Sta. Rosa Street, Dumaguete City. David Salon located in front of Spanish Heritage San Jan Street, Dumaguete City Jade Spa & Massage located at San Jose Street, Dumaguete City Grand Royal Spa located 2nd floor RM Building, North National Highway, Bantayan, Dumaguete City. These are the establishments which are considered the most competitive in the Beauty Industry and Spa industry wherein these businesses have already establish a name towards to their respective services.

Mitigating Computer Fraud in the Online Environment Essay

Crime on the Internet is creating stunning losses for people as well as organizations of all kinds (Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2009; Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). The necessity to inform and educate faculty, staff, and students of the diversity of threats and methods to protect and mitigate organizations and individuals from these threats is practically a moral imperative. People who lack the fundamental skills and knowledge to safeguard themselves and the institutions they attend or work for, cost those institutions and themselves billions of dollars every year, and the cost is rising (Custer, 2010; Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2009). This lack of fundamental skills and knowledge paired with the overall lack of education and information security by a preponderance of educational institutions and business makes it progressively more probable that cybercrime damages and costs will continue to burgeon (Guy & Lownes-Jackson, 2011; Khansa & Liginlal, 2009). In 2011, the fiscal cost of cybercrime was valued at 114 billion dollars (Ivan, Milodin, & Sbora, 2012). Responding to the escalated danger to educational organizations from cybercrime, a number of schools have been assigned to create programs for training students in Information Security Management (Kuzma, Kenney, & Philippe, 2009). Consistent with the necessity for instruction is the subsequent discussion of cyber threats and responses to them. Threats in an Online Environment Spam is the sending of unsolicited e-mails to unsuspecting victims. Spam is responsible for many of the threats that will be discussed (Burgunder, 2011). Spam harmfully effects computer systems because it’s sheer volume, with eighty percent or more of e-mail shown to be spam. Spam affords the method of deploying numerous kinds of threats. These threats can be divided into application based threats and human based threats. According to two international studies, businesses do not put sufficient emphasis on information technology security (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010). Human-based Threats Viruses, spyware, zombies, bots, and worms are all computer programs that are applied to destroy, corrupt, or glean data (Burgunder, 2011; Ivan et al., 2012). These are examples of human-based threats since systems are affected as a consequence of something that a human does. A virus is a computer program that typically contaminates systems through a spam e-mail or by clicking of a random advertisement, and then replicates itself over and over again. Trojan horses are a nonreplicating type of virus that appears useful, but is intended to corrupt or destroy files and programs. Spyware is designed to facilitate identify theft by delivering personal identifying data to cybercriminals. Zombies and bots can perform helpful purposes, but are used to collect data concerning the utilization of a system or computer. Worms are similar to viruses but do not need to piggyback on a file to be delivered from one system to another. Federal laws enacted make it a crime to deliberately generate harm to any computer system (Burgunder, 2011). Phishing is when someone poses as a legitimate company to collect personal information from unknowing victims. Phishing typically begins with an authoritative looking and sounding e-mail that directs the victim to a website that appears to be a legitimate business but is utilized to collect personal data (Burgunder, 2011; Custer, 2010). Phishing is currently the most widespread and well-known technique of fraud by electronic measures (Ivan et al., 2012). Software programs that either utilize a rainbow table or endeavor to deduce a password to get into a database or network is considered password sniffing (Kara & Atalay, 2012). After an administrator’s password is deduced it is probable that further accounts will be breached (Custer, 2010 Much too frequently transferable data with a person’s identifiable data is kept by means that were not constructed for security and not counted in a data security strategy (Custer, 2010). The greatest percentage of thefts of private information is from incorrectly stored backup tapes, external hard drives, or laptops. Existing laws order companies to alert affected individuals of a potential breach of their data. It is expected that the price tag of the typical breach of educational data will span from $210,000 to as much as $4 million from the costs of notifying affected individuals alone (Custer, 2010). Still, another type of cybercrime concerning human error is scams. In 2011 more than 20,000 recorded infringements involved four types of crime (Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2011). One of these types was FBI-related scams, in which someone impersonates a FBI agent to cheat victims, while another is personal identity theft, in which someone uses the victim’s personal identifying data to perpetrate a crime. The other two types are advanced fee fraud, in which a perpetrator persuades the victim to pay a fee to acquire something of value but without ever providing it and the non-delivery of products, in which the victim pays for merchandise that never arrives (Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2011; Ivan et al., 2012). Increasingly, information breaches happen because of resentful or dissatisfied employees (Custer, 2010). Presently, the main risk to data’s confidentiality, availability, and integrity within a company is careless treatment or purposeful destruction by in-house employees (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010). It is unusual for small or medium companies to pay much time or attention to the harm that insufficiently educated or malicious employees can cause. Application-based Threats Usually when security is penetrated from outside it is because of vulnerabilities or configuration errors connected to applications installed on networks and computers (Custer, 2010). The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP) enumerates 162 vulnerabilities a standard software application may contain that could be manipulated. Two of the most often abused application vulnerabilities are injection flaws and cross-site scripting (Custer, 2010). Cross-site scripting incorporates extra code in a HTTP response message that gets implemented if the vulnerability is not detected and prevented. The implementation of this code could involve dispatching the session cookie to someone who could then utilize that cookie to do damage (Custer, 2010). Current scrutiny estimates that poorly written and protected web pages permit as much as forty percent of information breaches by means of cross-site scripting (Custer, 2010). A database language that permits the retrieval and manipulation of objects and data on a relational database management system is the Structured Query Language (SQL). SQL injection attacks permits invaders to make several harmful changes. One possibility is to cause repudiation problems such as changing balances or voiding transactions. Another possibility is to meddle with data by allowing full disclosure of all information on the system or to eliminate the information or make it unavailable. A disturbing possibility is to make the intruder the administrator of the database server. The vulnerability happens when no effort is made to authenticate the user information, this makes it possible for an experienced user to input data in such a way to displace the real function of the SQL, and implement code for nefarious purposes (Custer, 2010). Between ten to twenty percent of information breaches happen because of web pages that vigorously generate statements against the database without authenticating the statements before proceeding to execution (Custer, 2010). Threat Responses in an Online Environment The necessity to develop, plan, and, most importantly, implement IT security awareness instruction is essential to guarantee the security of faculty, student, and institutional information (Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). Today’s systems have key security components such as spam filters and intrusion detection systems (Ivan et al., 2012). These components can expose unauthorized admission and filter electronic communications that are deemed high risk. Some information breaches happen because of system invasion and extraordinary technical talents of criminals. However, the majority happen because of human error and are founded more on inventiveness and cleverness (Ivan et al., 2012). Needed are policies, awareness and technology, education and training to ensure data security for both organizations and individuals (Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). Responding to Human-based Threats There are several actions that can be taken to eliminate or minimize the threats posed by viruses, spyware, zombies, bots, and worms. Installing a virus detecting software, then keeping it current, and confirming that it operates on a regular schedule is the principal defense for these threats. Additionally, a browser add-in that verifies web site ratings prior to permitting routing to a site should be installed and it will also warn users when they may be making a questionable or unsafe Internet selection. Furthermore, browser pop-up blockers reduce the frequency of successful infringement of this kind (Mensch & Wilkie, 2011). Finally, a security information awareness program should teach faculty, staff, and students concerning the gravity of the danger and the potential cost of their actions. Phishing is so widespread and flourishing due to the inexperience of users. An adequate amount of education and training is the key to alleviating the success of a phishing tactic (Ivan et al. , 2012). The way to mitigate or eliminate password sniffing is to teach all users on all systems to utilize hardened passwords. A hardened password is deemed to be a password that is changed at least every 90 days, with at least eight characters with one being a different case from the rest of the password, one is a special character, and at least one is a number (Custer, 2010). It is also essential that each user use a special hardened password for every system and that these hardened passwords not be recorded in a manner that can be discovered. An even superior remedy for sensitive information is a two-factor authentication that requests something the user has, such as a random digit produced by a miniature hardware token and something the user knows, like a password (Custer, 2010). A suggestion for IT professionals is to consider how they would transport over $200,000, and use comparable common sense and caution in their treatment of private information and the vehicle on which it is stored (Custer 2010). Also, it is recommended that any portable device use whole disk encryption and consequently if it is misplaced or stolen then information is rendered unreadable. Another method for decreasing human error is to inform users of the most predominant scams so they are prepared and less likely to be fooled (Ivan et al., 2012). The Internet Crime Complaint Center issues guidelines for performing business online (2011). A curriculum to maintain and increase data security awareness among staff, faculty, and students has a considerably inconsequential cost when equated to the conceivable costs of a security breach, but does entail consistency in application (Labodi & Michelberger, 2010). Responding to Application-based Threats The FBI reported that ninety percent of security infiltrations is from recognized problems. Assistive services have been designed that will permit companies to test their systems for these problems. Running these tests and then repairing any problems that are detected is vital to protect the system from the majority of security infiltrations (Custer, 2010). Also, creating a policy of regular system tests will most likely ensure that these types of system infiltrations will not occur. The most effective way to guard against SQL infiltration is centered on solid input validation (Ivan et al., 2012). Products exist that can be installed on systems to test a web site’s security ratings. Cross-site scripting can be curtailed through the utilization of such products. Conclusion Information technology security must be first and foremost for an organization. The protection of faculty, staff, and student personal data is critical to individual privacy and, furthermore, to the finances and reputation of the organization. Dangers to IT security come from weaknesses intrinsic to the use of compound software products and from human error. The educational organization’s IT team is responsible for averting the occurrence of information breaches and implementing appropriate tactics to diminish the damage of a data breach if it occurs. Information Security plans outline the security procedures that must be taken by an institution and should include both strategic and high level as well as operational and detailed. A key element in any information security plan must be the education and training of the individuals who have access to information. References Burgunder, L. B. (2011). Legal aspects of managing technology (5th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Custer, W. L. (2010). Information security issues in higher education and institutional research. New Directions for Institutional Research, 146, 23-49. doi:10.1002/ir.341 Guy, R., & Lownes-Jackson, M. (2011). Business continuity strategies: An assessment of planning, preparedness, response and recovery activities for emergency disasters. Review of Management Innovation & Creativity, 4(9), 55-69. Retrieved from http://www.intellectbase.org/articles.php?journal=RMIC&volume=4&issue=9 Internet Crime Complaint Center. (2011). Internet Crime Report. Washington, DC: National White Collar Crime Center and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved from http://www.ic3.gov/media/annualreport/2011_ic3report.pdf Ivan, I., Milodin, D., & Sbora, C. (2012). Non security – Premise of cybercrime. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 19(4), 59-78. Retrieved from http://www.ectap.ro/ Khansa, L., & Liginlal, D. (2009). Quantifying the benefits of investing in information security. Communications of the ACM, 52(11), 113-117. doi:10.1145/1592761.1592789 Kuzma, J. M., Kenney, S., & Philippe, T. (2010). Creating an information technology security program for educators. International Journal of Business Research, 10(1), 172-180. Retrieved from http://www.iabe.org/domains/iabe/journal.aspx?journalid=12 Labodi, C., & Michelberger, P. (2010). Necessity or challenge – information security for small and medium enterprises. Annals of the University of Petrosani Economics, 10(3), 207-216. Retrieved from http://www.upet.ro/anale/economie/pdf/20100322.pdf Mensch, S., & Wilkie, L. (2011). Information security activities of college students: An exploratory study. Academy of Information and Management Sciences Journal, 14(2), 91-116. Retrieved from http://www.alliedacademies.org/Publications/Papers/AIMSJ_Vol_14_No_2_2011%20p%2091-116.pdf